Global consumption of threatened freshwater eels revealed

Study Overview

Professor Kenzo Kaifu and Research Fellow Hiromi Shiraishi of Chuo University, together with Professor Yu-Shan Han of National Taiwan University, conducted the world’s first quantitative study to reveal the global consumption structure of freshwater eels (genus Anguilla). The research team combined DNA barcoding of eel products—purchased from retail stores and restaurants worldwide—with production and trade statistics to estimate species composition at the global level. Their findings were published in Scientific Reports on August 15, 2025.

Key Findings

• First global assessment of eel consumption integrating DNA barcoding with production and trade statistics.
• More than 99% of global eel consumption consists of three threatened species (American eel, Japanese eel, and European eel) listed in the IUCN Red List.
• East Asia accounts for the majority (64–85%) of global eel consumption, with Japan ranking first in per capita supply.
• The American eel is the most consumed species worldwide, followed by the Japanese eel and the European eel.
• Large discrepancies (up to 2.4-fold) between international statistics reveal serious gaps in eel production and trade data.

1. Background

Fishery resources are vital to humanity but are inherently vulnerable as they depend on natural ecosystems. Strong demand in certain regions can lead to overexploitation of resources elsewhere, creating serious global management challenges.

Freshwater eels (Anguilla spp.), comprising 16 species worldwide, are among the most valuable fishery resources. Glass eels for aquaculture fetch extremely high prices in international trade, which has led to poaching, smuggling, and other illegal activities. Of the 12 Anguilla species assessed by the IUCN, 10 are listed as threatened or near threatened due to habitat degradation, overfishing, climate change, and disease.

Demand shifts between species and regions in response to declines and trade restrictions—for example, decreased catches of Japanese glass eels increased demand for European eels, and once European eels were listed under CITES, demand shifted again toward Southeast Asia and the Americas.

Although DNA barcoding enables precise identification of eel species in processed products, global-scale consumption patterns could not be determined without integrating this with distribution volumes. This study is the first to reveal, on a worldwide scale, “which eel species are being consumed, and where.”

2. Results

Between 2023 and 2025, 282 eel samples were collected from retail outlets and restaurants in 26 cities across 11 countries/regions. DNA barcoding revealed four species: American eel (Anguilla rostrata), Japanese eel (A. japonica), European eel (A. anguilla), and Indonesian shortfin eel (A. bicolor).

When weighted by national distribution volumes estimated from production and trade statistics, the results showed:

• According to FAO statistics: American eel 75.3%, Japanese eel 18.0%, European eel 6.7%, Indonesian shortfin eel 0.02%.
• According to “Informal Consultation” Statistics from East Asia: American eel 52.7%, Japanese eel 43.5%, European eel 3.6%, Indonesian shortfin eel 0.2%.

Regardless of the data source (FAO or the Informal Consultation), over 99% of global consumption consisted of three threatened species (American, Japanese, and European eels), with the American eel being the most consumed species worldwide. East Asia emerged as the global centre of eel consumption, driven by cultural preferences and purchasing power. For more information about the Informal Consultation, please see the text box on the next page.

What is the “Informal Consultation?”

3. Significance and Future Perspectives

This study is the first to provide a quantitative picture of global eel consumption by species. It highlights that the vast majority of eels consumed worldwide belong to threatened species, while also exposing serious inconsistencies in production and trade statistics.

The findings demonstrate the urgent need to improve the accuracy of global aquaculture and trade data and suggest that sustainable use of eel resources is currently extremely difficult. Future work should expand monitoring to underrepresented regions and species while addressing weaknesses in data reporting systems.

Please also read the FACTSHEET 'Current Situation of Japanese Eel and Stock Management' that was co-produced with WWF Japan.
(Launched on October 17, 2025 (JST).)
https://www.wwf.or.jp/activities/data/20251016ocean01_eng.pdf